Online, that’s a bit like strolling into a digital jungle where uncertainty reigns supreme and unexpected surprises lurk around every virtual corner. The old building’s infrastructure is evident in the exposed wiring, a labyrinth of cables suspended from the ceiling and anchored firmly to the floor. In the center of the room, four sturdy metal tables stand upright, their steel surfaces stretching unbroken from tabletop to ceiling. As you slide open one of the numerous panels, you’ll behold a complex latticework of vacuum chambers, precision-crafted mirrors, carefully aligned magnetic coils, and laser light dancing in intricately choreographed patterns.
This precision timepiece holds a reputation as one of the world’s most accurate and reliable clocks.
What sets Ye’s atomic clock apart from its conventional counterparts is its optical frequency, a distinct feature resulting from the collaboration between the University of Colorado Boulder and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Unlike most clocks, which operate on microwave frequencies, this innovation employs an optical approach. The heartbeat of atomic clocks relies on the vibrations of strontium atoms, which oscillate at an astonishing rate of 429 trillion cycles per second. At an exact frequency matching mild in the lower end of the visible spectrum, this remarkably high frequency serves as a cornerstone of the clock’s extraordinary accuracy. Beats occur at frequencies within the gigahertz range, which fluctuates at approximately 10 billion ticks per second. By bridging the gap between microwave and optical frequencies, Ye’s atomic clock can potentially achieve tens or even hundreds of thousands of times greater precision.
Vector Atomic harnesses the precision of an optical atomic clock, anchored by a glass cell containing iodine molecules suspended as a vapour, which tick like a heartbeat. Will Lunden
A spin-off from Kanye West’s innovative work, his former graduate student Martin Boyd co-founded an entity that leveraged the principles behind Ye’s optical-clock technology to develop a wristwatch-sized timepiece that fits comfortably on a large attaché case. According to Jamil Abo-Shaeer, CEO of Vector Atomic, the company’s clock precision is significantly inferior to that of Ye’s, with an error margin that would result in losing one second per. Despite this, it also functions at an optical frequency, outperforming many industrial equivalents.
In the past 12 months, three distinct corporations – Vector Atomic, Infleqtion in Boulder, Colorado, and a company primarily based in Adelaide, Australia – have independently developed their own versions of compact optical atomic clocks.
Unleashed from the confines of the laboratory, these innovative timekeeping devices boast enhanced robustness and serve as a reliable fallback option to GPS, with applications extending beyond naval operations to encompass vital institutions such as research centers, financial establishments, and critical energy infrastructure. To enable more accurate GPS navigation, allowing centimeter-level positioning, thus enabling precise lane maintenance, facilitating pinpoint delivery drops onto balconies, and beyond.
Is it possible to revolutionize the boundaries of innovation, blurring the lines between electronics and optics? Transforming insights gleaned from a cumbersome, laboratory-scale prototype into a reliable, portable device required a paradigmatic change: Corporate technology teams, primarily comprising PhDs, needed to adapt their approach. As the demand for miniaturization in atomic physics intensified, researchers were compelled to shift their focus from excelling in precision at all costs to prioritizing compactness, reliability, and optimizing energy efficiency. Researchers transformed a groundbreaking scientific concept into a revolutionary innovation, defying the odds of what was thought to be possible with current knowledge.
Atomic clocks operate by measuring the vibrations of atoms, typically cesium-133, as they absorb and emit photons. These vibrations, known as transitions, occur at a precise frequency when the atoms are exposed to a specific type of light. This frequency is used to regulate the clock’s ticking, ensuring it remains accurate.
Like many scientists, Ye is driven to unravel the most profound enigmas of the cosmos. He hopes that his laboratory’s ultraprecise clocks may one day aid in unlocking the secrets of time itself, or shed light on the intricacies of consciousness. With unwavering enthusiasm, he delves into the intricate nuances of his design.
“When teaching physics, I’m impressed by how the concepts seem to come alive when trying to achieve high-precision measurements – everything you’re covering really makes sense and matters,” he says. As a person enters the laboratory, the subtle thermal energy emitted by their body will cause an imperceptible polarization of the surrounding atomic structures, minutely modifying their vibrational frequencies. To maintain the clock’s precision, one must ensure that its performance is accurately managed and monitored.
Developed within a compact optical atomic clock approximately the size of a briefcase. A tightly focused laser beam pierces directly into a transparent glass cell, illuminating the dense atomic vapor within. Atoms absorb light at a precisely specific frequency. The detector, a crucial component, quantifies the amount of absorption and leverages this information to precisely stabilise the laser at its optimal frequency. The frequency comb successfully translates the optical oscillations in the terahertz range into a more accessible microwave frequency, effectively gearing down the signal for further analysis. The clock outputs an ultraprecise 1-megahertz signal. Chris Philpot
In an atomic clock, specially discerning atoms detect when the frequency of electromagnetic radiation they encounter falls within a narrow range, deeming it either too hot, too cold, or precisely suitable.
The clock starts by harnessing electromagnetic radiation – either a microwave oscillator, as used in industrial atomic clocks, or a laser, similar to those employed by Ye’s device. Regardless of the underlying engineering, all sources inherently exhibit variability, bandwidth, and jitter, rendering their frequencies irregular and unreliable.
While traditional radiation sources exhibit varying properties, the isotopes of a given species, such as rubidium, cesium, or strontium, demonstrate uniform characteristics among their atomic counterparts, ensuring precise equivalence with at least one other. Atoms possess distinct energy levels that they can occupy. Each distinct pair of vitality ranges possesses its unique vitality gap, akin to a specific frequency. When an atom is exposed to radiation with a frequency that precisely matches the energy difference between two energy levels, it absorbs the radiation and promotes one or more electrons to a higher energy state. Shortly afterwards, the atom rapidly re-emits radiation as the electrons jump back down to lower energy levels.
As the clock operates continuously, a consistently stable power source, despite being susceptible to considerable broadband jitter, energizes the atomic structure. When a suitable supply frequency exists, electrons become excited and jump between vitality ranges. A detector measures the amount of radiation absorbed by atoms (or emitted as a function of structure), examining if the incident frequency is too high or too low. The harmonization of energetic impulses stabilizes the vibrational resonance of the supply chain, aligning with the innate frequencies of the atomic structure. The precise frequency seamlessly interfaces with a counter reliant on the oscillations of electromagnetic radiation, harmoniously synchronizing with the atomic clock’s ticking tempo. That stabilized reference oscillator is an ultra-accurate frequency standard—a precise timekeeper.
Numerous variables can impact the accuracy of the clock. As atomic particles oscillate, the inherent frequency of emitted radiation from their reference frame is affected by Doppler’s influence, leading to disparate atoms selecting distinct frequencies based on their velocities. Exterior electrical or magnetic fields, as well as warmth emitted by a human, can subtly influence the preferred frequency of an atom. A vibration can knock a supply laser’s frequency so drastically out of alignment that the atoms cease responding entirely, disrupting the feedback loop.
You singled out a particularly finicky atom among its peers, one that could potentially offer exceptionally precise results: strontium. To minimize the noise caused by thermal fluctuations, Ye’s team employs advanced techniques to cool atoms almost to absolute zero. To enhance detection of the atoms’ sign, researchers corral them into a periodic lattice – a structure resembling an egg carton – fabricated using another laser. This configuration enables the formation of distinct groups of atoms, which can exhibit contrasting properties and opposition, ultimately facilitating more precise measurements. Utilizing a precise combination of seven lasers with distinct colours, Ye’s laboratory leverages these versatile tools to cool, trap, prepare the clock state, and detect the phenomena, carefully tailoring each laser application to satisfy the unique requirements of the atoms at play.
While the lasers enable the clock’s remarkable accuracy, they also come at a higher cost and occupy valuable space. Without exception, each laser relies on an array of optical components to precisely tune its frequency and alignment – and most are merely askew or slightly deviant from their intended hue.
The laser is often misunderstood as being inherently weak. As engineers design a microwave oscillator, they typically surround it with a carefully crafted waveguide to optimize performance; these devices often operate continuously without interruption. Despite their reputation for precision, lasers are surprisingly delicate and easily disrupted. Waveguides, when enclosed and securely fastened, exhibit greater robustness due to their reduced exposure.
A team of graduate students and postdoctoral researchers diligently operate the lab, resolute in their quest to ensure the laser’s instabilities do not hinder their pursuit of unprecedented measurement accuracy. They possess a certain privilege in their pursuit of linguistic exactness, unhindered by mundane considerations.
As companies transition from serving niche markets to catering to a broader customer base, they must undergo a significant mindset shift from creating bespoke products for select clients to manufacturing industrial-grade solutions that meet the needs of a diverse range of consumers. This paradigmatic change requires a fundamental rethinking of how businesses approach innovation, product development, and supply chain management.
As Vector Atomic seeks to bring its cutting-edge optical atomic clocks to market, it’s driven by a shared pursuit of precision with Ye and his team – this time, aiming to achieve a profound industrial impact.
“Our main competitor isn’t actually Jun Ye,” declares Vector Atomic’s Abo-Shaeer. “Our main competitors are industrial clocks already available in the market.” We’re endeavoring to bring forth and promote these innovative approaches to keeping pace with modern times.
To ensure commercial viability, these clocks must remain unaffected by the proximity of a person’s body heat and immune to malfunctions caused by accidental bumps or knocks against the system. Given the need for fundamental transformation, Vector Atomic’s attention was redirected to the most vulnerable component of its system, forcing a complete overhaul from scratch. When designing the system, Abo-Shaeer opted for an unconventional approach: “Instead of building it from the atomic level up,” he explains, “we built it from the laser level down.”
Initially, they significantly curtailed the array of laser types employed in the concept. Without precise laser cooling, the atomic clock must operate on atoms or molecules in their gaseous form, contained within a glass cell. Unfortunately, there’s no crystalline structure to organize atoms into distinct aggregates, thus precluding the collection of meaningful data. While each decision entailed sacrifices in precision, they were crucial to create robust and compact devices.
To determine the best laser for their needs, Abo-Shaeer and his team assessed various options, seeking those that were likely to be the most robust, cost-effective, and expertly engineered. The technology has been widely adopted in both established manufacturing sectors—mature industries—and the precision machining sector. They subsequently inquired about the specific atom or molecule whose transition could be effectively excited by this particular laser? The response was simply an iodine molecule, whose electrons exhibit a characteristic transition at 532 nanometers – a wavelength matching that of a typical industrial laser, conveniently situated at precisely half its length. To compress light into an incredibly small wavelength, scientists may attempt to halve the original value by using a conventional method.
“We’ve seen a proliferation of individuals with PhDs.” Atomic physicists require an extraordinary amount of creative thinking to excel in their field, which is even more challenging given that they must master complex concepts as graduate students seeking to publish research papers, remarks Abo-Shaeer.
With a fleet of cutting-edge lasers at its disposal, Vector Atomic was never content to simply rely on a single tool for success. While having a field that outputs an extremely precise laser oscillating at multiple terahertz may seem impressive, it ultimately proves to be entirely ineffectual. None of the electronic devices are capable of counting these ticks. To accurately translate the optical signal into a pleasing microwave equivalent while preserving the original signal’s precision, the team aimed to develop a.
Frequency combs are lasers that emit light in a sequence of closely spaced pulses in time. As you examine their intricate structure, it becomes apparent that their comblike arrangement gives rise to distinct frequencies or colors of sunlight emission, arranged similarly to the enamel teeth of a comb. The topic’s focus lies in these innovative gadgets that seamlessly merge the realms of optics and microwaves, enabling precise control over laser light while maintaining precision.
Until recently, frequency combs have undergone a remarkable transformation, evolving from laboratory-based devices to compact, portable instruments that fit in a briefcase (and even prototype form). As a direct result, a surge in innovation was unleashed, empowering the development of three optical atomic clocks and propelling the emerging market forward with momentum.
Excessive time for optical time
Innovations often unfold in a sudden burst, as if some unseen catalyst had charged the atmosphere with the potential for something entirely new to emerge.
Infleqtion and QuantX Labs have concurrently created clocks of their own, joining Vector Atomic’s Evergreen-30 model in brief succession. Inflection has achieved seven gross sales thus far for its innovative timekeeping device, sans the obligatory quantum-tech corporation’s pretentious touch. Meanwhile, a leading provider of innovative clock technology has announced the availability of its first two offerings, with deliveries slated for customers before the end of this year, according to Alexey Sazonov, co-founder and managing director of QuantX Labs. A fourth firm, headquartered in Golden, Colorado, operates across multiple sectors.
The three emerging clock companies, Vector Atomic, QuantX Labs, and Infleqtion, are poised to debut prototypes of their innovative timepieces in homes. QuantX Labs has developed a precise, 20-liter scaled model of its iconic House Clock, as depicted on the left. QuantX Labs
Notably, each of the three companies has independently arrived at strikingly similar design choices. All parties subsequently acknowledged that lasers had proved to be the primary constraint, opting instead for a glass cell filled with atomic vapour rather than a vacuum chamber and laser cooling and trapping methods. The participants collectively decided to quadruple the transmission rate of the telecommunications laser system. Unlike Vector Atomic, Infleqtion, and QuantX Labs, which opted for a different approach, they instead chose to work with rubidium atoms. Can the vitality hole in rubidium, centered around 780 nanometers, be mitigated by a frequency-doubled infrared laser operating at 1560 nanometers? QuantX Labs excels by leveraging two closely tuned lasers, enabling an innovative two-tone probing technique that significantly reduces energy requirements. Each team successfully calibrated their timepieces to fit within a compact 30-litre space, equivalent in size to a typical briefcase.
The three corporations invested significant effort to ensure their clocks performed reliably in typical settings. As the precision of optical clocks decreases in comparison to their laboratory counterparts, the radiation emitted by a nearby individual is no longer a concern. Despite abandoning laser cooling, this development has significantly increased the probability that external factors such as temperature and motion could influence the atomic clocks’ intrinsic frequency.
According to Luiten, “It’s crucial to master the technique for creating the atomic cell so that it remains decoupled from its environment.”
Optical clocks set a new course, soaring to unprecedented heights.
To test the resilience of their invention, the University of Adelaide and its partners ventured onto the open waters. Experts from various countries joined forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to tackle the challenging problem of synchronization in navigation and timing at the annual Five Eyes nations’ collaboration event. The Australian Navy personnel had been participating in full-contact rugby matches with their counterparts from the Royal New Zealand Navy. To establish a superior expertise in atomic physics,” Abo-Shaeer states.
Following an unprecedented 20-day stint on board a naval vessel, Vector Atomic’s precision optical clocks remarkably maintained synchronization with their initial readings in controlled laboratory settings. “When news of the breakthrough first emerged, I anticipated an uproar would ensue,” said Jonathan Hoffman, a program supervisor at the U.S. Protection Superior Analysis Tasks Company (PSTC), a co-funder of Vector Atomic’s research efforts. “Researchers have devoted significant time and effort to investigating optical clocks over the course of several decades.” For the first time, an optical clock operated autonomously without human intervention, in its natural environment.
Researchers from Vector Atomic, QuantX, and the University of Adelaide tested the resilience of their cutting-edge optical atomic clocks by placing them on a ship. Despite the ship’s tumultuous conditions, including intense rocking motion, extreme temperature fluctuations, and sudden water sprays, the clocks of Vector Atomic demonstrated remarkable stability, with their efficiency remaining largely unaffected. Although The College of Adelaide’s iconic clock had noticeably deteriorated, its staff seized the opportunity to refine and improve their original design. Will Lunden
Despite enduring some degradation at sea, the College of Adelaide’s vessels ultimately benefited from the trial by gaining a critical understanding of the underlying causes of this phenomenon. According to Luiten, this redesign enables the staff to avoid the primary sources of noise altogether.
In May 2024, Infleqtion successfully dispatched its Tiqer clock, marking another significant milestone for the company. A brief-haul flight from MOD Boscombe Down, a Royal Navy base in the UK, transported cutting-edge quantum technology alongside Science Minister Andrew Griffith. Although the corporation continues to study data from the flight, the clock has already surpassed all onboard references, according to Judith Olson, lead of the atomic clock project at Infleqtion.
The three corporations are focused on developing miniature versions of their timepieces. Scientists assert that with proper training, individuals can significantly reduce the size of their luggage from approximately 30 litres to just 5L, roughly the dimension of a vintage two-slice toaster. “Largely, these vacant containers remain unused storage space,” Luiten says.
During the rigorous sea trials, the Vector Atomic’s and the College of Adelaide’s clocks were exposed to the harsh marine environment. Jon Roslund
InfleQtion is developing a compact, 100-mL design that utilizes integrated photonics to enable the miniaturization of this technology. “At the time,” Olson remarks, “a pocket watch was essentially the only timepiece that could be carried conveniently.” “It’s likely to develop a significant heat pocket over time, primarily due to the facility drawing still being too high.” Although the immense energy consumption may seem extraordinary, it’s still likely to have a profoundly impactful effect.
The three corporations also intend to bring their designs to life, with all ships being delivered and in operation within the next few years. By leveraging its Kairos mission, QuantX is poised to deploy an element of its Tempo clock into orbit by 2025, with a comprehensive launch planned for 2026.
Precision timing right this moment
What drives scientists’ enthusiasm for developing increasingly accurate timekeeping tools lies in their potential to revolutionize numerous fields. In situations where GPS signals are unreliable or inaccessible, these location-based services will likely see immediate practical applications.
When people think of GPS, they typically envision a small blue dot pinpointing their location on a digital map displayed on their smartphone. Behind this seemingly innocuous dot lies a complex ecosystem of precision timekeeping devices. The Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is established through a process of averaging, utilizing around 400 atomic clocks from diverse locations worldwide, ensuring collective precision and reliability.
According to Jeffrey Sherman, a supervisory physicist at NIST specializing in the development and refinement of UTC clocks, the difference between UTC and any astronomical definition of time based on Earth’s rotation is approximately one million seconds.
UTC is broadcast to satellites within the Global Positioning System (GPS) community precisely twice daily. Every satellite TV system features its own onboard clock, typically built around a precise microwave atomic clock based on rubidium. The atomic clocks, precise to within a few nanoseconds over the duration of their self-sustaining operation, according to Sherman. From there, satellites accurately provide timing signals to various types of infrastructure on Earth, including knowledge facilities, financial institutions, energy grids, and cell towers.
Precise timing enables satellites to pinpoint a cell phone’s location on a digital map by triangulating signals. A cell phone should synchronise with at least four GPS satellites to receive precise timing information from all of them. Notwithstanding distinct differences in distance traveled from the satellites, the instances will exhibit varying characteristics. Using this nuance, and grasping the satellites’ placements, the cellphone accurately determines its precise location. The precise timing on board satellites directly affects the accuracy of determining a cellphone’s location – currently.
The exactly timed future
Optical atomic clocks can seamlessly integrate themselves into various tiers of the global timing framework. If reliable enough over the long term, these clocks could potentially serve as a reference point for defining the UTC standard, effectively replacing other timekeeping devices. Typically, most of the clocks that comprise our conventional systems have. While hydrogen masers rival the precision of portable optical clocks, their compact counterparts are not. Measuring roughly the size of a kitchen refrigerator, these devices necessitate a large, thermally and vibrationally controlled environment to operate effectively.
“I firmly believe that most people would concur that the maser may have reached the pinnacle of its technical development,” Shermann states. While early optical clock innovations achieved significant advancements, the current pace has stagnated, with newly developed models struggling to surpass their pioneering counterparts’ performance? There is hope that by fostering growth, individuals will seize the opportunity to excel, often demonstrating remarkable progress in the near term.
The worldwide timing infrastructure. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is established through the collective efforts of precise clock systems, including groups of atomic clocks, hydrogen masers, and exact timepieces. A network of satellites harbouring atomic clocks that are regularly synchronised with Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The satellites transmit precise timing signals to knowledge hubs, financial institutions, cell towers, and other stakeholders. At least 24 global navigation satellites from multiple constellations, such as the US Global Positioning System (GPS), Russian GLONASS, European Galileo, and China’s BeiDou, work together to determine your cellphone’s precise location using trilateration. An optical atomic clock could potentially be integrated into the global timekeeping framework of UTC, deployed on board satellites, or serve as a reliable backup system for critical infrastructure such as research facilities, financial institutions, and cell towers. Chris Philpot
In certain situations where GPS signals are unavailable, optical clocks may prove useful. While numerous people consider GPS to be extremely reliable, cases of jammed or spoofed GPS signals are surprisingly prevalent during times of conflict or crisis. Try accessing a day-by-day map of your location at gpsjam.org, which provides an alternative to traditional GPS navigation in situations where signal interference prevents accurate mapping.
This could have severe implications for the United States. Division of Protection. The absence of GPS-based time disrupts naval communication operations. “It is essential for the Department of Defense to distribute information across numerous alternative platforms,” said DARPA’s Hoffman. We aim to deploy this technology across various platforms – from maritime vessels to aircraft, satellites, and ground transportation.
It will also pose a challenge in creativity, productivity, and time management. All instances that utilize precise timing require synchronization down to approximately one microsecond to ensure accurate performance and compliance with regulatory requirements. The supply of timing for these functions should be significantly elevated, at least an order of magnitude greater, effectively requiring a response time of approximately 100 nanoseconds. When GPS provides a surplus of capacity, industries relying solely on it may seem safe, but the threat of jamming or spoofing puts them at significant risk.
Although neighbourhood-based microwave atomic clocks can provide a reliable backup, they still exhibit a daily loss of several nanoseconds, even when operated within strictly controlled temperature conditions. Optical atomic clocks offer a safeguard for these industries, ensuring uninterrupted operations even in the event of prolonged disruptions to GPS signals.
According to Infleqtion’s Olson, having a surplus of efficiency indicates that we can gauge the effectiveness of our efforts with greater precision over hours, days, and even months. The higher-end timepieces boast this feature.
Ultimately, portable optical atomic clocks will unlock the possibility of a future where your entire timing fabric can transition seamlessly from nanoseconds to picoseconds with precision. Sending these satellites into space to forge their own precise GPS model? While among various challenges, this could enable location accuracy down to several millimeters, rather than just two meters.
As Vector Atomic’s CEO, Abo-Shaeer confidently proclaims, “We’re renaming it GPS 2.0.” By enabling millimeter-scale location decisions, it becomes feasible for entities to stay within designated lanes or even allow supply drones to land safely on a New York City balcony.
This breakthrough invention has the potential to unlock a multitude of innovative possibilities across diverse sectors, paving the way for groundbreaking advancements. The ability to select from a range of optimal timeframes will unlock innovative possibilities previously unexplored? Several applications have been developed within the existing constraints of Global Positioning System (GPS). According to David Howe, chief of the time and frequency metrology group at NIST, the concept is akin to a classic Catch-22 in various guises. As a result, you find yourself stuck in a mode where you’re unwilling to elevate your perspective, constrained by the limitations of the functions designed for what’s currently attainable. It will require a more expansive vision to ponder, “What can we achieve with optical clocks?”
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